Page 2: Chemical Characteristics of Amino Acids

This page delves into the chemical behavior of aminokwasy $amino acids$, particularly their amphoteric nature and pH-dependent forms.

Amino acids exhibit amphoteric character, meaning they can react with both acids and bases. This property is due to the presence of both acidic $carboxyl$ and basic $amino$ groups in their structure.

Definition: Amphoteric substances can act as both acids and bases, depending on the reaction conditions.

The form in which an amino acid exists depends on the pH of the solution:

1. At low pH $acidic conditions$: Amino acids exist as cations
2. At high pH $basic conditions$: Amino acids exist as anions
3. At a specific pH called the isoelectric point: Amino acids exist as zwitterions $neutral molecules with both positive and negative charges$

Vocabulary: Zwitterion - a molecule with both positive and negative electrical charges.

Highlight: The isoelectric point $pI$ is the pH at which an amino acid exists predominantly as a zwitterion, with no net electrical charge.

Understanding these pH-dependent forms is crucial for predicting amino acid behavior in different biological environments and for techniques like electrophoresis used in protein analysis.

Page 3: Synthesis and Reactions of Amino Acids

This page covers the methods of obtaining aminokwasy $amino acids$ and their key reactions, particularly the formation of peptide bonds.

Amino acids can be obtained through two main methods:

1. Hydroliza białek $Protein hydrolysis$: Breaking down proteins into their constituent amino acids using water and enzymes or chemical treatments.
2. Ammonolysis: Reaction of α-halogenated carboxylic acids with ammonia.

Example: The hydrolysis of a peptide bond: R₁-CH$NH₂$-CO-NH-CH$R₂$-COOH + H₂O → R₁-CH$NH₂$-COOH + H₂N-CH$R₂$-COOH

A key reaction of amino acids is the formation of peptide bonds, which occurs through a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Definition: A peptide bond is a covalent chemical bond formed between two amino acids when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another, releasing a water molecule.

Example: The formation of a tripeptide Gly-Val-Ala $glycylvalinylalanine$ through the condensation of glycine, valine, and alanine.

This process of joining amino acids is fundamental to the synthesis of proteins and peptides in biological systems. The resulting peptide chain has directionality, with an N-terminus $amino end$ and a C-terminus $carboxyl end$.

Page 4: Isomerism and Condensation Reactions of Amino Acids

This final page discusses the isomerism of aminokwasy $amino acids$ and further elaborates on their condensation reactions.

Isomerism in amino acids: Most amino acids $except glycine$ contain a chiral center at the α-carbon, leading to two possible configurations: L and D isomers.

Highlight: In proteins, amino acids almost exclusively occur in the L-configuration, which is crucial for their biological function.

Definition: Chirality refers to the property of a molecule that makes it non-superimposable on its mirror image, like left and right hands.

Condensation reactions: The formation of peptide bonds through condensation reactions is a fundamental process in protein synthesis.

Example: H₂N-CH₂-COOH + H₂N-CH₂-COOH → H₂N-CH₂-CO-NH-CH₂-COOH + H₂O

This reaction occurs between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another, releasing a water molecule.

Vocabulary: Peptide bond - a covalent chemical bond formed between two amino acids in a condensation reaction.

Understanding these concepts is crucial for comprehending protein structure and the mechanisms of protein synthesis in living organisms. The ability of amino acids to form peptide bonds through condensation reactions is the basis for the incredible diversity and functionality of proteins in biological systems.

Page 1: Introduction to Amino Acids

This page introduces the general structure and nomenclature of aminokwasy $amino acids$. Amino acids are organic compounds containing both amino $-NH₂$ and carboxyl $-COOH$ groups.

Definition: Amino acids are derivatives of hydrocarbons containing both carboxyl and amino groups.

The general formula for an amino acid is R-CH$NH₂$-COOH, where R represents the side chain specific to each amino acid.

Nomenclature of amino acids follows systematic rules:

1. The prefix "amino-" is added to the name of the corresponding carboxylic acid.
2. The position and number of amino groups are indicated as with other carboxylic acid derivatives.

Example: Glycine $GLY$ has the structure H₂N-CH₂-COOH and is systematically named as 2-aminoethanoic acid.

Physical properties of amino acids include:

• Solid crystalline state at room temperature
• Generally colorless
• Most are soluble in water
• They are electrolytes, capable of conducting electricity in solution

Highlight: The amphoteric nature of amino acids allows them to react with both acids and bases, a crucial property for their biological functions.